Kindergartens and Intergenerational Mobility

We evaluate the impact of free public kindergartens in the early twentieth-century United States on intergenerational mobility for children of immigrant and native parents. Using linked Census and newly digitized kindergarten enrollment data, we find that kindergartens reduced mobility, particularly for children of Eastern and Southern European immigrants. This effect is driven by higher-income families being more likely to attend kindergarten and to convert early enrollment into long-term educational gains. Our findings contribute to the literature on the long-run effects of early childhood interventions.