What is a Programming Error? A Thematic Analysis of Teachers’ Views on Errors

Research in education has shown that making errors is essential for learning. However, it is not always clear what constitutes an error, for example in a problem-solving task. Different teachers may have different ideas about what constitutes an error, and these different ideas may differently shape their educational choices. Theoretical literature identifies two typologies of programming errors: (1) errors in the code that cause the robot to behave unexpectedly, and (2) stylistic inaccuracies in the programming rules that are recognised as such regardless of the robot's behaviour. This paper aims to analyse how teachers conceive of programming errors in educational robotics. Nineteen experienced educational robotics teachers were interviewed about their conception of errors and the most frequent errors pupils made in their classes. We asked the teachers to reflect on their experience and consider the role of errors in the learning process. The thematic analysis identified two main themes concerning errors in educational robotics, each with three sub-themes. The first theme, Definition of Error, includes behavioural errors, stylistic errors, and errors as learning tools: errors not only signal unexpected robot behaviour or stylistic issues in the code, but also provide opportunities for students to reflect, experiment, and engage in problem-solving. The second theme, "Locus" of the Error, distinguishes errors related to software, hardware, or interactions with the physical environment, highlighting how robot behaviour can be influenced by multiple factors. Overall, these findings suggest that understanding both the type and origin of errors can support more targeted teaching and transform errors into valuable learning opportunities.